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'ac_batteries.htm~ AC Batteries|ac batteries ac battery ac power sources ac standby power portable power ups uninterruptible power supply ac inverters sinewave frequency stabilisation *'
+'motorsac.htm~ AC Motors|electric drives electric motors ac motors alternating current motors rotating fields induction motors synchronous motors three phase motors 3 phase motors polyphase motors transformer action sinusoidal voltage sinusoidal current squirrel cage rotors slip pull in torque pull out torque hysteresis motors wound rotor units starting currents single phase induction motors regenerative braking dynamic braking plugging universal motors motor speeds *'
+'alkaline.htm~ Alkaline Batteries|alkaline battery applications general purpose primary battery toys remote controls clocks flash lights flashlights torches consumer applications radios ram long lifetime vibrators zinc manganese dioxide potassium hydroxide koh *'
+'alternatives.htm~ Alternative Energy Storage|alternative energy storage capacitors capacitance permitivity permittivity of free space dielectric constant supercapacitors ultracapacitors supercaps electrostatic storage electrostatic battery thermal battery seebeck effect thermo-electric battery thermo electric battery thermoelectric battery thermocouple battery amtec battery seebeck battery direct energy conversion efficiency springs clockwork battery compressed air energy storage caes pneumatic battery pumped storage systems hydraulic battery off-peak superconducting magnetic energy storage systems smes superconductors magnetic battery flywheels flywheel battery kinetic energy kinetic battery flywheel containment load sharing power booster charge radioisotope thermoelectric generator rtg satellites lighthouses nuclear power nuclear battery nuclear batteries atomic battery atomic batteries plutonium betavoltaics ragone plots ragone diagram joules *'
+'amtec.htm~ AMTEC Direct Energy Conversion|alkali metal thermal electric converters amtec kummer weber electrochemical direct energy conversion efficiency rtg nuclear battery nuclear batteries sodium heat engine thermoelectric generators *'
+'authentication.htm~ Authentication and Identification|authentication bms holograms rfid radio frequency identification bar codes traceability tracability counterfeit counterfeiting tamper proofing tamper proof *'
+'applications.htm~ Battery Applications|battery applications standby power reserve battery load levelling power ranges *'
+'chargers.htm~ Battery Chargers and Charging|battery chargers battery charging process charging time constants charge transfer mass transfer intercalation battery hysteresis in batteries chemical hysteresis battery overcharging charging schemes charging times charge termination methods constant current constant voltage cccv cvcc fast charging fast chargers intelligent batteries intelligent battery intelligent chargers trickle charge float charge polarisation rest periods negative pulse chargers negative pulse charging reflex charging burp chargers burp charging taper chargers iui charging iui charger kelvin connection voltage sensing switch mode chargers switchers linear chargers series regulators shunt regulators buck regulators dc-dc converters dc dc converters ndv slow chargers fast chargers quick charge pulsed chargers rest periods resting stabilising stabilizing quick chargers dt/dt dv/dt timers temperature cut off smbus induction coils induction charging methods opportunity charging transformers tooth brush toothbrush charge acceptance charge efficiency coulombic efficiency charger efficiency inrush current power factor *'
+'chemistries.htm~ Battery Chemistries|electrochemistry primary cell chemistry secondary cell chemistry cell chemistries battery chemistry battery chemistries redox reactions electrochemical series electron pump periodic table of the elements periodic table groups periodic table periods daniell cells half cells standard electrode potentials electromotive force emf nernst equation gibbs free energy equation lithium polymer lithium ion lithium cobalt lithium manganese lithium phosphate lithium thionyl chloride lithium sulphur dioxide lithium sulfur dioxide solid intercalation intercallation electrolyte interface solid electrolyte interphase sei layer passivating layer lithium titanate oxide lto lead acid nickel metal hydride nimh nickel cadmium nicads ni-cd nicd sodium sulfur sodium sulphur zebra battery zebra batteries ninacl zinc air leclanche cells zinc carbon zinc chloride manganese coulombic efficiency cycle life microcycles oxidation reduction anodes cathodes ions electrons non aqueous electrolytes osmosis semi-permeable membranes semi permeable membranes separators self discharge capacity amp hours ampere hours ah watt hours memory internal resistance energy density self discharge optimisation optimization two electrolyte systems intercalation additives catalysts inhibitors raw materials supply element abundance toxic materials toxicity lithium avaiallability lithium consumption lithium abundance lithium supplies lithium supply lithium resources lithium production lithium content *'
+'specifications/comparisons.pdf~ Battery Comparison Charts|cell chemistry comparison charts cell chemistries battery comparison charts comparisons lithium polymer lithium ion lead acid nickel metal hydride nimh nickel cadmium nicads ni-cd nicd sodium sulfur sodium sulphur zebra batteries zebra battery ninacl zinc air aluminium air costs weights volumes sizes energy density specific power cycle life self discharge rates temperature range internal impedance internal resistance *'
+'failure_modes.htm~ Battery Failure Modes|battery failure modes cell failure modes battery failures cell failures short circuits hard short soft short aging ageing loss of electrolyte irreversible capacity loss electrode plating lithium deposition contamination thermal runaway design faults dendrites contamination passivation overheating corrosion *'
+'history.htm~ Battery History|History milestones inventions technologies applications developments inventors charlatans personalities yakov zeldovich pioneers *'
+'life.htm~ Battery Life|battery life cycle life shelf life calendar life lifetime reliability failure death abuse coup de fouet whiplash inrush current pressure effects gassing explosion rupture overheating depth of discharge dod deep cycle battery deep discharge temperature control limits temperature effects arrhenious arrhenius reaction rates morphology memory effect crystals crystal growth dendrites dendritic growth ageing aging cyclic stresses swelling passivation loss of electrolyte leaking leakage venting pressure release corrosion recombinant seals sealing formation reconditioning conditioning recovery load sharing cell balancing charging battery management systems bms dimensions dimensional accuracy chemical composition warranty period guarantee period *'
+'bms.htm~ Battery Management Systems|battery management systems bms state of charge soc state of health soh communications history identification traceability monitoring depth of charge charging current pre-charging 2 stage charging pre charge circuits impedance check inrush currents intelligent battery intelligent batteries intelligent charger smart batteries smart battery system sbs smbus multiplexers multiplexing gas gauge fuel gauge regenerative braking regen automatic control systems feedback binary control progressive control variable control loop feedback loop master and slaves star topology daisy chain ring topology limp home mode get you home get home mode bypass links gps remote monitoring *'
+'battery_manufacturing.htm~ Battery Manufacturing|lithium battery manufacturing lithium cell assembly electrode coating burrs slitting anodes cathodes electrodes electrolytes current collectors battery cases cylindrical cases prismatic cases pouch cases formation sei layer solid electrolyte interface solid electrolyte interphase dry room jelly roll swiss roll stacked electrodes spiral wound electrodes process control *'
+'pack_construction.htm~ Battery Pack Design|battery pack construction battery pack design battery capacity packaging battery housing connections interconnections terminals casing cases packs injection mouldings injection moldings moulds molds plastics mouldings insert mouldings insert moldings overmoulding overmolding interfacing swelling cooling airtight sealed purging ventilation potting ultrasonic welding resistance welding weld solder soldering date stamp serial numbers traceability tracability colour matching texture matching tolerances fitting latching keys keyways keyed connectors shrouds shrouded terminals flexi pcbs flexible circuits flexible printed circuit boards battery pack costs tooling costs engineering costs battery pack production costs prototype costs *'
+'recycling.htm~ Battery Recycling|battery recycling environment toxic waste toxic materials mercury cadmium lead waste battery collection battery recyclers reprocessing legislation *'
+'reliability.htm~ Battery Reliability|battery reliability predictions battery warranties battery warranty liabilities battery guarantees warranty contracts weibull distributions weibull probability plot battery failures battery safety battery fires battery lifetime distributions battery cycle life characteristic life weibull shape factor poisson distribution failure modes wearout wearin infant mortalities random faults bathtub curve failure distributions *'
+'safety.htm~ Battery Safety|material safety data sheets msds sheets storage shipping packing recycling recycle protection circuits fuses thermistors circuit interrupt device cid safety vent abuse keys keyways keyed connectors shrouds shrouded terminals short circuits process control energy content joules toxicity reactivity flammability physical hazards chemical hazards hazardous chemicals ceramic separators shut down separators flame retardants inhibitors self extinguishing electrolytes multi level sagety plan *'
+'storage.htm~ Battery Storage|battery storage temperature shelf life lead acid storage nimh storage nicad storage nicd lithium ion storage lithium-ion storage environment *'
+'technology.htm~ Battery Technology|battery technology battery design pack construction cell chemistry *'
+'testing.htm~ Battery Testing|battery testing indirect meaurements conditioning instrumentation test equipment life cycling load testing shake and bake environmental testing vibratio testing emc testing electromagnetic compatibility emc emi rfi radio frequency interference radiated interference conducted interference sheilding filters faraday cage anechoic chamber evaluation impedance measurement conductance measurement performance monitoring qualification testing production testing maintenance testing thermal testing thermal imaging infra red radiation emission calorimeter calorimetry heat measurement ward leonard controller ward-leonard controller urban driving cycles fuds ece-15 ece15 eudc usabc dst simulations battery analysers mission critical applications test methods test procedures test conditions internal resistance internal impedance conductance open circuit voltage ocv kelvin bridge contact resistance *'
+'timeline.htm~ Battery Timeline|battery timeline battery history summary battery development chronology *'
+'battery_types.htm~ Battery Types|ac battery ac batteries ac power sources inverters battery applications flow batteries ampoule batteries standby batteries smart batteries thermal batteries water activated batteries capacitors supercapacitors ultracapacitors supercaps electrostatic storage electrostatic battery thermal battery fuel cells solar cells nuclear batteries rtgs radio-isotope thermoelectric generator *'
+'beginners.htm~ Beginners Page|beginners students definitions battery power battery capacity battery voltage cell voltage battery current watts volts amps coulombs internal resistance ohms law internal impedance volt drop terminal voltage joule heating joules c rate amphour capacity amp hours charge capacity miliamphours watthours milliwatthours series connections parallel connections *'
+'benefits.htm~ Benefits of Custom Packs|benefits convenience flexible flexibility controls profit opportunities security aftermarket compatibility reliability compromises *'
+'biofuels.htm~ Biofuel Electricity Generation|renewable energy sustainable energy biofuels electricity generation biomass calorific values electricity generating plant cogeneration global warming sustainable energy resources co2 carbon dioxide fossil fuels solar energy photosynthesis greenhouse gases crop yields poplar willow miscanthus switchgrass bagasse reed canarygrass environmental issues *'
+'motorsbrushless.htm~ Brushless Motors|electric drives brushless electric motors brushless dc motors bldc permanent magnet motors field energised motors rotating fields switched reluctance motors variable reluctance motors synchronous motors stepping motors salient poles *'
+'supercaps.htm~ Capacitors and Supercapacitors|booster capacitors carbon nanotube enhanced supercapacitors supercaps electric double layer capacitors edlcs electrostatic batteries alternatives load sharing *'
+'carbon_footprints.htm~ Carbon Footprints|carbon footprints co2 emissions carbon dioxide renewable energy sources carbon emissions environment *'
+'balancing.htm~ Cell Balancing|reliability multi-cell batteries cell selection cell balancing equalisation equalization cell reversal cycle life extension soc coulomb counting dod flying capacitor distributive charging capacitive shuttle inductive shuttle redox shuttle charge levelling voltage levelling dissipative balancing active balancing passive balancing charge limiting charge shunting *'
+'cell_construction.htm~ Cell Construction|cell components cell cases terminals separators trade offs trade-offs bobbin cell design spiral wound cell construction jelly roll jelly-roll swiss roll swiss-roll flat plates stacked electrodes cylindrical cases primatic cases pouch cases metal cases plastic cases lipo cells electrolytes anodes cathodes seals sealed cells recombinant cells recombination catalyst resealable pressure vent mechanical design casing dimensions size conventions tubular aaa aa 18650 laminated layers prismatic cells cylindrical cells wound tubular button cells coin cells pouch cells swelling bendable batteries flexible batteries paper batteries bipolar construction monopolar construction stacked wafer cells layer cells duplex electrodes nomenclature standards capacity power shunt current energy optimisation power optimisation optimization solid state thin film batteries solid state lithium thin film batteries bendable batteries thin film battery radio frequency identification rfid implantable batteries implantable medical devices micro batteries separators safety devices production costs investments *'
+'charger_spec.htm~ Charger Specification Checklist|how to specify chargers battery charger specifications charger checklists *'
+'communications.htm~ Communications|automotive control communications smbus smart battery smart batteries can bus lin bus full duplex rs232 bus rs 232 half duplex rs485 bus rs 485 eia 485 eia-485 eia485 balanced differential bus nodes rs485 transceivers i2c bus inter-integrated circuit bus embedded systems flexray bus high speed data bus tdma time division multiple access data frame format history data logging monitoring diagnostics smart batteries smart connectors distributed multiplexers multiplexing *'
+'specifications/common_cases.xls~ Common Cell Sizes|common case sizes cell dimensions case dimensions specifications a cells aa cells aaa cells aaaa cells c cells d cells f cells g cells j cells n cells pp3 battery pp9 battery lantern battery *'
+'contactus.htm~ Contact Us|contacts sales info contact axeon information help form webmaster administration*'
+'conversion_table.htm~ Conversion Table|conversion tables conversion factors mole atomic mass number amu *'
+'specifications/cylindrical_cells.xls~ Cylindrical Cell Sizes|low power cell sizes case sizes cell dimensions cylindrical case dimensions cylindrical cells specifications capacity *'
+'motorsdc.htm~ DC Motors|electric drives electric motors dc motors direct current motors series wound motors shunt wound motors brushed motors field energised motors rotors separately excited motors permanent magnet motors universal motors regen regenerative braking field weakening speed control *'
+'demand.htm~ Demand Management|battery applications minimise current drain optimise product design demand drain quiescent current hibernate standby power down *'
+'elements.htm~ Discovery of the Elements|history of discovery of the elements periodic table alchemists chemists physicists chemical elements atomic numbers sub atomic particles aristotle egyptians greeks romans hittites chaldeans indians paracelsus magnus valentinus geoffroy brand de ulloa wood brandt cronstedt black cavendish rutherford scheele priestley gahn vauquelin hjelm von reichenstein elhuyar crawford hope humphry davy klaproth gregor gadolin wohler bussy del rio hatchett ekeberg wollaston tennant berzelius gay lussac gay-lussac sniadecki klaus courtois arfvedson strohmeyer hermann oersted lowig balard mosander bunsen kirchhoff crookes reich richter janssen lockyer mendeleev mendeleyev de boisbaudran nilson winkler fajans gohring hahn meitner soddy cranston fleck cleve delafontaine soret de marignac von welsbach moissan strutt lord rayleigh ramsay travers marie curie pierre currie debierne dorn demarcay urbain james auer coster hevesey noddack tacke berg law pool kurbatov quill marinsky glendenin coryell perey mcmillan abelson corson segre seaborg wahl kennedy cefola james ghiorso morgan thompson street choppin harvey walton sikkeland larsh latimer flerov organessian armbruster munzenberg rigol hofmann utyonkov moody smolanczuk carbon copper sulphur sulfur gold silver iron tin antimony mercury lead zinc arsenic bismuth phosphorus platinum cobalt nickel magnesium hydrogen nitrogen oxygen chlorine manganese chromium molybdenum tellurium tungsten strontium zirconium uranium titanium yttrium beryllium vanadium niobium tantalum rhodium palladium osmium indium cerium potassium sodium boron calcium ruthenium barium iodine thorium lithium selenium cadmium silicon aluminium bromine lanthanum erbium terbium caesium rubidium thallium indium helium gallium scandium germanium protactinium holmium ytterbium samarium thulium gadolinium praseodymium neodymium fluorine dysprosium argon helium krypton neon xenon polonium radium actinium radon europium lutetium hafnium rhenium technetium masurium promethium francium neptunium astatine plutonium curium americium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium meitnerium hassium darmstadtium ununumium ununbium ununquadium ununhexium ununtrium ununpentium ununoctium ununseptium ununennium transfermium elements transuranium elements radioactive elements half life *'
+'generators.htm~ Electric Generators|electric drives electric motors electric generators alternators synchronous generators dynamos voltage regulators voltage regulation frequency control voltage control switched reluctance generator claw pole rotors commutator self excited induction generator seig generator cooling hydrogen cooling stand alone systems island systems grid connected systems *'
+'electrical_energy.htm~ Electrical Energy Supply|renewable energy sustainable energy electrical energy supply electricity generation methods electricity generating plants electric power generation nuclear power conventional steam generating plant steam turbines fossil fuels biomass geothermal power hydro electric power wind power wave power tidal barrage dams solar power photovoltaic eletricity generation pv electric generators solar thermal power nuclear fusion power electrochemical power nuclear batteries combined heat and power chp magneto hydro dynamiic mhd electricity generation stirling engine marine engines hybrid power generating systems emergency power generation remote area power systems raps hydrogen power electricity co-generation cogeneration fuel cells *'
+'machines.htm~ Electrical Machines|electric machines electric drives electric motors field energised motors motor action generator action motor torque cooling motor efficiency rotors stators lorenz force back emf reluctance torque flux density teslas rotor windings stator windings flux leakage webers iron losses magnet magnetising magnetic poles salient poles interpoles magnetic fields air gap airgap reluctance mmf magnetomotive force ampere turns magnetic force magnetic field strength magnetic circuits bh curve magnetic constant magnetic permeability of free space saturation eddy currents laminations hysteresis power factor cogging commutators electronic commutation regen regenerative braking protection *'
+'electricity_demand.htm~ Electricity Demand|electricity demand patterns electricity consumption energy consumption electrical appliances domestic demand characteristics aggregate demand load matching capacity planning spinning reserve peak shaving vehicle to grid systems v2g vtog  systems intelligent networks intelligent grid smart grid electricity grid capacity planning load levelling round trip efficiency load shedding *'
+'chemical_energy.htm~ Electrochemical Energy|renewable energy sustainable energy electrochemical energy nuclear battery nuclear batteries thermal battery battery costs battery energy efficiency coulombic efficiency round trip efficiency storage efficiency energy density *'
+'radio.htm~ Electromagnetic Radiation|electromagnetic radiation electromagnetic spectrum radio waves radio communications ionisation layer ionosphere ionization layer wave particle duality wave theory of light particle theory of light photon energy photon flux power density photons wavelength radio frequency x rays x-rays wireless communications eye ionising radiation ionizing radiation ionisation effects ionization effects physiological effects radiation damage visible light optical waves plancks constant maxwell radio frequency safety limits sar specific absorption rates microwave radiation microwave oven microwave leakage inverse square law miracles *'
+'index.htm~ Electropaedia Home Page|custom battery packs power solutions index home page specialist batteries *'
+'technology.htm~ Electropaedia Technology Base|web site background description contents *'
+'energy_efficiency.htm~ Energy Efficiency|renewable energy sustainable energy energy efficiency comparisons energy generating efficiency energy usage efficiency energy supply chain energy distribution losses distribution efficiency hysteresis losses eddy current losses joule heating losses rankine cycle plant utilisation efficiency capacity factor load factor base load plant margin energy saving lumens *'
+'coal.htm~ Energy from Coal?|fossil fuels coal fired power stations global warming health hazards renewable energy frisch peierls bohr *'
+'energy_resources.htm~ Energy Resources|renewable energy sustainable energy resources energy sources energy content coal oil gas gasoline kerosene diesel petrol wood uranium hydrogen natural energy flows electricity generating costs voltage regulator dc link load shedding energy conversion processes gibbs free energy faraday constant mole *'
+'fossil_fuels.htm~ Energy from Fossil Fuels|fossil fuels conventional electrical power generation coal fired power generation oil fired power generation gas fired power generation drax power station co-firing biomass energy conversion process air quality global warming environmental issues wind farms co2 carbon dioxide electricity generating costs *'
+'faq.htm~ FAQ|faq frequently asked questions brands branding OEM business scope business mission services products refurbish refurbishment retail replacement batteries aftermarket equivalents knock-offs replacements replacement batteries material safety data sheets msds sheets battery standards quality standards safety standards *'
+'feedback.htm~ Feedback Form|feedback comments suggestions ideas complaints *' 
+'flow.htm~ Flow Batteries|flow batteries flow battery redox regenesys bipolar two electrolyte systems zinc-bromine battery zinc/bromine battery zinc bromine battery zinc bromide *'
+'fc_comparison.htm~ Fuel Cell Comparison Chart|renewable energy sustainable energy proton exchange membrane pem fuel cells phosphoric acid fuel cells pafc alkaline fuel cells afc molten carbonate fuel cells mcfc solid oxide fuel cells sofc direct methanol fuel cells dmfc applications electrolyte fuel cell output power fuel cell temperature range fuel cell efficiency fuel cell advantages fuel cell disadvantages *'
+'fuel_cells.htm~ Fuel Cells|fuel cells fuel cell stacks transient response dynamic range grove hydrogen water pollution environment reforming reformer aerospace spacecraft traction hybrid electric vehicles alkali phosphoric acid solid oxide molten carbonate proton exchange membrane pem direct methanol dmfc conversion efficiency well to wheel efficiency battery boost capacitors platinum catalysts wind turbines nuclear power stations *'
+'gas_turbines.htm~ Gas Turbine Power Plants|gas turbines positive feedback gas turbine power plants emergency electricity supply peak shaving co-generation cogeneration crude oils fuel flexibility brayton cycle adiabatic compression adiabatic expansion open system turbine pressure ratio combustor combustion chamber compressor *'
+'geothermal_energy.htm~ Geothermal Energy|renewable energy sustainable energy geothermal energy geothermal resources geothermal aquifers hydrothermal aquifers hydrothermal energy earths mantle magma gutenberg discontinuity lithosphere mohorovicic discontinuity moho discontinuity continental crust oceanic crust earths crust asthenosphere heat flow heat flux geothermal gradient geothermal temperature gradient energy harvesting energy capture hydrothermal energy hydrothermal resources hot rocks hot dry rocks superheated water ocean thermal energy conversion otec working fluid heat exchanger binary systems *'
+'glossary.htm~ Glossary|glossary guide dictionary information knowledge base questions answers technology definitions *'
+'glossary.htm#A~ Glossary A|a/d converter analog/digital converter adc ac inverters acid alkali active materials agm battery absorbed glass mat battery absorbtive glass mat battery fibreglass fiberglass alkaline battery alabc ambient temperature amorphous ampere hours amps amphours ampoule battery analog circuit analogue circuit anechoic chamber anions anisotropic anode aqueous solution arrhenius equation arrhenius law arrhenious assembled battery ansi atomic number elements electrons atoms auger analysis authentication allotrope allotropy *'
+'glossary.htm#B~ Glossary B|base battery management systems bms battery monitoring bobbin bootstrap british thermal units btus calories buck regulators dc dc converters dc-dc converters button cells butler volmer equation *'
+'glossary.htm#C~ Glossary C|c programming language c language embedded software c rate calendar life can bus calorimeter capacity offset capacitance capacitor farad catalyst cathode cations cca ce marking ce standards cell balancing cell chemistry cell reversal charge acceptance charge carriers charge transport drift electromigration charge efficiency charge pumps charge rates charge retention state of charge soc cid circuit interrupt device coin cells conditioning conducting polymers constant voltage charge cv constant current charge cc conversion efficiency coup de fouet whiplash critical temperature contacts coulomb counting coulombic efficiency curie point curie temperature remanent ferromagnetic csa current limit current shunt cut off voltage cut-off voltage cvt cycle life cylindrical cell *'
+'glossary.htm#D~ Glossary D|d/a converter digital/analog converter dac dc dc converters dc-dc converters deep discharge deep cycle battery delta v dt/dt dendritic growth depth of discharge capacity dod dst usabc diamagnetism diamagnetics dielectric constant discharge rate discharge voltage dry battery duty cycle *'
+'glossary.htm#E~ Glossary E|e rate ece-15 ece15 elastomer electret electrochemical equivalent electrode potential electrolysis electrolytes ions emc electromagnetic compatibility embedded system electromotive force emf end voltage endothermic energy density energy content enthalpy entropy windowed eprom otp eprom eeprom equalisation esca electron spectroscopy chemical analysis esd protection electrostatic discharge eudc eurobat eutectic exercise exothermic *'
+'glossary.htm#F~ Glossary F|faraday cage faraday constant fcc ferromagnetics ferromagnetism fet field effect transistors firmware flexray bus float charge flooded lead acid cells flow battery flywheel battery formation fpga field programmable gate array programmable logic gates fuds fuel cells fuel gauge fast chargers fuzzy logic fuzzy systems *'
+'glossary.htm#G~ Glossary G|galvanic cells gas gauge guage gassing gelled cells gibbs free energy gmr giant magnetoresistance gravimetric energy density gravimetric power density ground loop gas chromatography gas-liquid chromatography chemical analysis *'
+'glossary.htm#H~ Glossary H|hall effect magnetic field measurement half cell hertz hibernation high rate discharge horse power hp bhp hybrid electric vehicles hevs hydrometer hygrometer hysteresis *'
+'glossary.htm#I~ Glossary I|iec igbt insulated gate bipolar transistor immobilised electrolyte immobilized electrolyte inhibitors ions atoms electrons anions cations impedance inductance henry inductor infra red radiation insert moulds insert molds insert mouldings insert moldings intelligent battery intercalation intercallation internal resistance inverters ir loss ir drop i2r heating i2r loss iso isotopes *'
+'glossary.htm#J~ Glossary J|josephson effect joule heating effect *'
+'glossary.htm#K~ Glossary K|kalman filter kelvin bridge kelvin connection contact resistance keyed connectors keys keyway *'
+'glossary.htm#L~ Glossary L|leakage leaking cell leclanche cells lifetime energy throughput lin bus lithium ion cell lithium polymer cell load current ldo low drop out linear chargers linear regulators *'
+'glossary.htm#M~ Glossary M|nmr nuclear magnetic resonance imaging mri scanners mass spectrometer mass spectroscopy molecules moles magnetohydrodynamic generator mhd generator plasma meisner meissner effect superconductors superconductivity levitation diamagnetism memory effect metal hydride microcycles misra monomers multiplexer demultiplexer morphology mosfets *'
+'glossary.htm#N~ Glossary N|nano nanometer micron nanotechnology nanomaterials nanobattery nanobatteries negative delta v ndv negative electrode anode nernst equation nominal capacity nominal voltage negative temperature coefficient nre ntc nema neural networks nmr nuclear magnetic resonance imaging mri scanners nuclear fission nuclear fusion *'
+'glossary.htm#O~ Glossary O|oem ohmic loss open circuit voltage ocv operational amplifiers op amps operating voltage opportunity charging opto-isolator opto coupler opto isolator opto coupler osmosis semipermeable membrane over-charge over charge over current over-discharge over discharge over current over voltage overmoulding overmolding oxidation *'
+'glossary.htm#P~ Glossary P|packs packaging parallel connections paramagnetics paramagnetism passivation layer periodic table permanent charge ph acid acidity alkali alkalinity base basicity photovoltaic cells pv cells photocells photovoltaic effect pilot cell plastics plates pngv polarisation polarization polarity reversal polymers thermoplastics plastics rubber elastomer pouch cells power transistor bipolar transistor positive electrode cathode power density powernet 42 volts ppm primary battery prismatic cells positive temperature coefficient ptc protection pptc non-linear thermistors pulse chargers pulse discharge peukert polyswitch pngv polymorphism *'
+'glossary.htm#Q~ Glossary Q|quick chargers quick charging quiescent current *'
+'glossary.htm#R~ Glossary R|ragone plot ram cells raps remote power rated capacity recombinant system reconditioning refurbishing refurbishment recovery recycling redox battery reduction regenerative braking regen braking relays solenoids resealable safety vents resettable fuse rest periods resting reversible reaction reserve battery reserve capacity resistance welding radio frequency interference rfi susceptibility rfi emission radio frequency identification rfid tags rocking chair cells rs232 bus rs232 connection rs485 bus rs485 connection rs 232 rs 485 *'
+'glossary.htm#S~ Glossary S|sae safety vents sampling rate sealed cells secondary battery self-discharge self discharge rates sem scanning electron microscope semiconductor separators series connections series regulators linears service life sintering shedding shelf life shrouds shrouded terminals shunts shunt regulators shuttlecock cells stereolithography apparatus sla battery sealed lead acid battery sli battery starting lighting ignition smart battery smart batteries slow chargers smbus solenoids solid state battery solid state batteries soc state of charge soh state of health spintronics spiral wound jelly roll jelly-roll swiss roll swiss-roll stacked electrodes studs solar cell solar battery solar batteries solar panels specific energy specific gravity sg specific power sulfation sulphation sulphates sulfates superconductors superconductivity swelling expansion distortion swing cells standard charge switch mode chargers switch mode regulators switchers pulse width modulation pwm standby power storage life *'
+'glossary.htm#T~ Glossary T|tabs tafel equation temperature cut off temperature cut-off temperature termination voltage sensor thermal fuse thermal imaging thermal management thermal runaway thermistor thyristor scr silicon controlled rectifier traction battery transient response trickle charge tuv *'
+'glossary.htm#U~ Glossary U|ul marking ul standards ultrasonic welding ups uninterruptible power supply usabc *'
+'glossary.htm#V~ Glossary V|valence valency vent venting voltage cut-off voltage cut off voltage limit voltaic efficiency voltage regulator volumetric energy density volumetric power density vrla battery valve regulated lead acid battery *'
+'glossary.htm#W~ Glossary W|ward leonard controller ward-leonard controller watt hours watthours well to wheel efficiency *'
+'glossary.htm#X~ Glossary X|x-ray crystallography x-ray diffraction x ray crystal structure *'
+'glossary.htm#Y~ Glossary Y| *'
+'glossary.htm#Z~ Glossary Z|zebra battery sodium nickel chloride ninacl high temperature zapping *'
+'gratzel.htm~ Gratzel Cell|gratzel cells gratzel solar cells graetzel cells photosynthesis regenerative photoelectrochemical cells non-galvanic cell chemistry photosynthesis titanium dioxide nano particles *'
+'fame.htm~ Hall of Fame|famous names scientists engineers inventors physicists electro chemists electro-chemists *'
+'heat_engines.htm~ Heat Engines|heat engines heat cycles heat flow thermodynamic cycles energy conversions gas laws joule thomson effect daltons law of partial pressures entropy second law of thermodynamics clausius inequality carnot cycle carnot engines carnot efficiency stirling engines stirling cycle stoddard engines stoddard cycle rankine engines rankine cycle steam engines steam cycle otto engines otto cycle spark ignition diesel engines diesel cycle atkinson engines atkinson cycle miller engines miller cycle brayton engines brayton cycle gas turbines gas cycle ericsson engines ericsson cycle lenoir engines lenoir cycle haldane heat pumps vapour compression refrigeration heat cycles joule kelvin freon cfcs ozone layer climate change gas absorption refrigeration refrigerator fridges coolers *'
+'high_power.htm~ High Power Batteries|high capacity cells high power cells high capacity batteries high power batteries high power traction batteries automotive batteries military batteries mil spec batteries back up batteries standby power sli starter batteries electric vehicles evs hevs hybrids deep cycle batteries *'
+'high_temp.htm~ High Temperature Batteries|high temperature batteries sodium sulfur sodium sulphur redox battery thermal batteries *'
+'history.htm#2500bc~ History 2500BC|egyptians mesopotamians tutankhamun tutankhamen tutankamen solder soldering wire bronze metalwork cloisonne imhotep pyramids medicine doctor scientist egyptian science hippocrates *'
+'history.htm#2300bc~ History 2300BC|egyptians stencilling egyptian technology *'
+'history.htm#1300bc~ History 1300BC|egyptians gold wire bible exodus glass fibre glass fiber fiberglass fibreglass egyptian science *'
+'history.htm#1280bc~ History 1280BC|moses aaron ark of the covenenant tesla capacitor static electricity *'
+'history.htm#800bc~ History 800BC|romans pliny greeks lodestone loadstone magnets magnetite natural history *'
+'history.htm#600bc~ History 600BC|thales greeks amber rod static electricity lodestone loadstone magnets scientific method greek science *'
+'history.htm#460bc~ History 460BC|democritus greeks atomic theory atoms dalton greek science *'
+'history.htm#350bc~ History 350BC|aristotle greeks reason rational geocentric cosmos four elements st thomas aquinas gilbert greek science newton lavoisier alexander experimental method *'
+'history.htm#250bc~ History 250BC|mesopotamia iraq baghdad battery galvanic cells gilding electroplating parthians konig keyser electric eels analgesics analgesia arab science *'
+'history.htm#220bc~ History 220BC|magnets magnetic compass china chinese chin dynasty qin dynasty qin shi huangdi huang-ti geomancy feng shui navigation *'
+'history.htm#206bc~ History 206BC|china chinese han dynasty petroleum extraction oil wells natural gas ban gu book of han fire wells deep drilling percussion drilling drake shen kuo *'
+'history.htm#27bc~ History 27BC 500AD|greeks romans arabs arabic *'
+'history.htm#150~ History 150|greeks ptolemy almagest geogrphia maps map making geography greeks romans geocentric universe epicyclic orbits equants copernicus trigonometry *'
+'history.htm#200~ History 200|galen, medical research, brain, mental activity, aristotle *'
+'history.htm#400~ History 400|hypatia of alexandria library of alexandria astrolabe hydrometer greeks christians *'
+'history.htm#426~ History 426|st augustine miracles magnetism magnets *'
+'history.htm#619~ History 619|romans tidal energy tidal power tidal mills tide mills *'
+'history.htm#645~ History 645|silk screen printing chinese xuan zhuang inked squeeze stencil *'
+'history.htm#700~ History 700-1100|muslims islamic science islam muslim science arabs jabir ibn haiyan mohammad ibn zakariya al razi rhases rhazes mohammad bin musa al khawarizmi sultan byazid II arabic printing press deacon abdalla zakhir king henry viii pope urban viii galileo banned books scientific revolution *'
+'history.htm#776~ History 776|islam jabir ibn haiyan geber alembic experimentation crystallisation crystallization distillation calcination sublimation evaporation  *'
+'history.htm#830~ History 830|islam mohammad bin musa al khawarizmi mathematics zero algebra equations trigonometric tables algorithm *'
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+'history.htm#1885~ History 1885|goldstein canal rays wien protons ferraris rotating magnetic fields induction motors benardos olszewski electric arc welding arc welder ganz blathy deri zipernowsky high voltage alternating current distribution system ac watthour meters toroidal transformers magnetic circuits daimler benz automobile daimler benz car internal combustion engine otto *'
+'history.htm#1886~ History 1886|stanley induction coils transformers dc ac alternating current distribution system gassner carbon-zinc carbon zinc carbon dry cells leclanche cells primary cells recycling elihu thomson hall heroult process hall-heroult process electrolytic extraction aluminium aluminum akroyd stuart compression ignition engine diesel engine *'
+'history.htm#1887~ History 1887|kelvin voltmeters arrhenius arrhenious temperature effects chemical reaction rates elihu thomson electric welding resistance welding weld tesla polyphase ac generators polyphase induction motors synchronous three phase electric motors current wars westinghouse electric chair electric shocks shocking deaths electrocute electrocution ferranti deptford power stations alternating current distribution ac power distribution high frequency induction heating induction furnace boys glass fibre glass fiber fibreglass fiberglass waller electrocardiograph electrocardiogram hertz photoelectric effect photovoltaic effect quantum theory einstein max planck *'
+'history.htm#1888~ History 1888|hertz transmit radio waves receive radio waves spark gap electromagnetic waves radio transmission radio transmitter radio receiver detectors antennas hallwachs photovoltaic effect photoelectric effect photoelectric emission photocells electron emission photovoltaic solar cells peral zede drzewiecki gymnote electric submarine battery reinitzer liquid crystals strowger automatic telephone exchange switchboard operator uniselector rotary dial pulse dialing hayes central telephone exchange battery common battery central battery magnetos leclanche cells subscribers *'
+'history.htm#1889~ History 1889|elihu thomson recording wattmeters von dobrovolski dobrovolsky squirrel cage induction motors nernst equation third law of thermodynamics entropy enthalpy willamette falls westinghouse alternating current ac hydroelectric power generation ac power distribution ac generators ac distribution ac transmission *'
+'history.htm#1890~ History 1890|ewing hysteresis losses bh loop hysteresis effects hard magnets soft magnets permanent magnets temporary magnets steinmetz dundee random access memory ram *'
+'history.htm#1891~ History 1891|steinmetz law hysteresis losses hysteresis effects hysteresis law phasors phasor diagrams complex numbers imaginary numbers ac circuits ac circuit analysis electric vehicle ev ward leonard controller speed controls wenstrom three phase power 3 phase electricity three phase electric transmission system hertz lenard cathode rays deutsche physik branly father of radio lodge bose varley onesti coherer radio wave detector radiotelegraphy detector ligtning bridge lightning arrester *' 
+'history.htm#1892~ History 1892|weston standard cells calibration standards electrical instruments electric meters ammeters voltmeters wattmeters clark stubblefield ground battery earth battery radio telephony father of radio broadcast lorentz law electron electromagnetic fields electric field magnetic field lorentz force electrodynamics *'
+'history.htm#1893~ History 1893|elster geitl photocell photoelectric cell electric eye current wars westinghouse edison tesla kelvin ac dc niagara falls ac systems alternating current transmission current wars rudolf diesel engines compression ignition engines four stroke cycle akroyd stuart engines biofuels bio diesel cycle engines otto cycle engines bio fuels biodiesel *'
+'history.htm#1894~ History 1894|charles parsons steam turbine reaction turbine turbinia queen victoria cavitation oliver lodge alexander muirhead radio signals radio transmission radio waves tuners marconi tuned circuits spiritualism branly coherer *'
+'history.htm#1895~ History 1895|roentgen rontgen characteristic x-rays xrays x rays bremsstrahlung radiation energy levels crookes tube curies law curie point curie temperature diamagnetics diamagnetism paramagnetics paramagnetism ferromagnetics ferromagnetism popov father of radio waves lightning electromagnetic radiation antennas aerials lodge marconi *'
+'history.htm#1896~ History 1896|marconi radio broadcasting wireless radio telegraphy radio waves jacques carbon battery becquerel radioactive radioactivity electrons gamma rays alpha particles alpha rays beta particles beta rays nucleons neutrons protons decay radioisotopes isotopes nuclear battery misell hubert flashlights flash lights torch torches ever ready d cells dowsing integrated starter alternator isa integrated starter generator isg arnold electric starter self-starter dechamps *'
+'history.htm#1897~ History 1897|jj thomson electrons e/m ratio crookes tube faraday zeeman weichert kaufmann lenard aether ether nobel prizes braun crt cathode ray tubes oscilloscopes darracq regenerative braking regen braking peukert equation peukert number battery capacity *'
+'history.htm#1898~ History 1898|poulsen magnetic recording and playback wire recorder sound reproduction wiens law protons canal rays black body radiation rutherford lodge radio tuning radio communications syntonic radio tuner sintonic tuner radio tuning tuned circuits pierre curie marie curie radioactivity radioactive radium polonium radiation sickness *'
+'history.htm#1899~ History 1899|duell patents rutherford soddy becquerel alpha rays beta rays gamma rays gamma radiation villard jungner nickel cadmium battery alkaline battery alkaline cells nicad batteries nicd battery ni-cd cells rechargeable batteries nicads nicd nickel cadmium cells rechargeable cells jenatzy electric vehicle ev land speed record electric car jamais contente porsche hybrid electric vehicles evs hevs series hybrid pupin coils heaviside inductive loading coils distortionless transmission lines lodge tuned circuit *'
+'history.htm#1900~ History 1900|edison nickel iron battery nife rechargeable battery alkaline battery alkaline cells electric cars max plancks constant quanta quantum theory photons drude electrical conduction kinetic electrochemistry pieper hybrid electric vehicles evs hevs regenerative braking regen braking holland dual propulsion submarine fenian ram *'
+'history.htm#1901~ History 1901|michaelowski nickel zinc battery *'
+'history.htm#1902~ History 1902|hewitt mercury arc rectifier electric traction electricity market penetration *'
+'history.htm#1903~ History 1903|galvani einthoven electrocardiograph electrocardiogram soddy rutherford radioactivity spontaneous atomic disintegration radioactive transformation flexible printed wiring printed circuit boards printed circuits flexi pcbs flexi circuits flexible pcbs double-sided pcbs multilayer pcbs krieger hybrid electric vehicles evs hevs tswett gas chromatogrphy separation identification murray teleprinter teletype baudot code punched tape *'
+'history.htm#1904~ History 1904|fleming diode rectifier thermionic valve tubes potentiometer hulsmeyer radar direct current ac alternating current distribution system dc powered devices electronics hubbell mains plug and socket ginori conti larderello geothermal power plant hydrothermal power plant *'
+'history.htm#1905~ History 1905|einstein e=mc2 photons photoelectric effect max planck quantum theory brownian motion speed of light avogadros number tafel butler-volmer butler volmer electrochemical reactions piper hybrid electric vehicles evs hevs langevin magnetism magnetic properties magnetic moments sonar ultrasound *'
+'history.htm#1906~ History 1906|fessenden wireless amplitude modulation am radio waves broadcast radio frequency carrier wave radio carrier wave alexanderson generator multipole generator high frequency generator tesla pickard dunwoody crystal detector cats whisker point contact diode galena braun *'
+'history.htm#1907~ History 1907|baekeland bakelite thermosetting plastics de forest audion triode amplifier triode valve triode tube active device fleming diode marconi father of radio round light emitting diodes leds weiss magnetic domains diamagnetics diamagnetism paramagnetics paramagnetism curie temperature hysteresis ferromagnetics ferromagnetism simon silk screening screen printing stencilling chinese thick film thin film etching surface mounted components *'
+'history.htm#1908~ History 1908|pumped storage systems voith turbo hydraulic battery brandenberger cellophane separator *'
+'history.htm#1909~ History 1909|sorensen ph acidity alkalinity beauty battery beautey hermetically sealed wet battery *'
+'history.htm#1910~ History 1910|millikan oil drop experiment thomson townsend wilson electron charge mass of electron mass coulombs electric current flow amps electron flow coolidge tungsten filament light bulbs claude neon lights *'
+'history.htm#1911~ History 1911|onnes superconductivity superconductor rutherford soddy geiger marsden atomic structure atomic nucleus orbiting electrons campbell swinton all electronic television tv logie baird television nipkovs disc nipkows disc nipkov disc nipkow disc *'
+'history.htm#1912~ History 1912|jj thomson soddy parabola spectrography isotopes mass spectrometer kettering self-starters automobile electric starter lead acid automobiles cars sli batteries willard braggs law x ray analysis x-ray crystallography von laue x-ray diffraction wilson cloud chamber elementary particle detector sub atomic particle detector ionisation detector sarnoff rca titanic sos armstrong regenerative receivers regenerative amplifiers positive feedback amplifiers de forest audion triode leavitt cepheids cepheid variable star brightness comparisons pulsating stars pigott goodricke star distances standard candles shapley hubble *'
+'history.htm#1913~ History 1913|niels bohr quantum mechanics quantum theory atomic structure atomic model energy levels energy quanta photon moseley atomic numbers periodic table x-ray diffraction berry littlefield bassist etched printed circuit wiring pcbs subtractive printed circuit boards printed circuits photoengraving eletrodeposition ford moving conveyor line paced production line assembly line *'
+'history.htm#1914~ History 1914|millikan plancks constant e/m ratio electron mass slipher red shift redshift redshifted galaxies doppler effect *'
+'history.htm#1915~ History 1915|benedicks germanium crystal rectifier semiconductor willard hard rubber automotive lead acid battery construction sli batterries car batteries fery air depolarising battery fery battery zinc air battery zinc-air battery colpitts push pull amplifier push-pull amplifier variable frequency oscillator hartley oscillator colpitts oscillator oscillation positive feedback carson single sideband modulation single sideband suppressed carrier modulation amplitude modulation am ssb modulation ssbsc frequency division multiplexing shapley hertzsprung leavitt stellar distances cepheids variable stars cepheid brighness cosmic dimensions galaxies inverse square law *'
+'history.htm#1916~ History 1916|lewis chemical bonding chemival bonds ionic bonds ionic bonding ions valence valency dissociation sommerfeld bohr-sommerfeld model atomic structure quantum numbers quantum states northrup high frequency induction heating induction furnace induction melting czochralski method cz method single crystal growth single crystals semiconductor crystal pulling *'
+'history.htm#1917~ History 1917|campbell wagner high pass filters low pass filters bandpass filter passive electric wave filters signal conditioning signal selection signal tuning rutherford protons atomic structure splitting the atom split the atom nuclear reactions nuclear fission alchemist transmutation of matter cockcroft cockroft walton *'
+'history.htm#1918~ History 1918|armstrong schottky fessenden superheterodyne receiver superhet schoop printed circuit boards printed circuits pcbs metal deposition flame spraying *'
+'history.htm#1919~ History 1919|eccles and jordan flip flop circuit flip-flop circuit bi-stable latch circuit binary numbers bits digital circuits logic circuits eguchi electrets microphones electrostatic domains electric dipole schottky tetrode tube tetrode valve nicholson quartz crystal oscillators *'
+'history.htm#1920~ History 1920|kdka commercial radio broadcasts AM radio stations aston eddington bethe mass defect binding energy mass spectrography mass spectrometry suns energy *'
+'history.htm#1921~ History 1921|electricity market penetration cady pierce oscillators crystal controlled oscillators positive feedback amplifiers frequency standards crystal oscillators midgley anti-knock fuel tetraethyl lead free petrol lead free gasoline unleaded fuel chlorofluorocarbons cfcs ozone later refrigerators fridges refrigerants *'
+'history.htm#1920s~ History 1920s|diesel electric locomotives electric drives electric transmission *'
+'history.htm#1922~ History 1922|bbc wireless radio broadcast marconi losev light emitting diodes leds photodiodes cats whiskers solid state amplifiers transistor radios negative resistance characteristic tunnel diodes crystadyne radios minorsky steinmetz three term controllers pid controllers feedback control closed loop control staudinger monomer polymer polymerisation polymerization styrene polystyrene *'
+'history.htm#1923~ History 1923|marconi otophone hearing aids dodge romig sampling plans average outgoing quality limit aoql acceptable quality limit sampling inspection tables producers risk consumers risk mil std 105D mil std 105E deming quality control six sigma tqm bronsted lowry acids bases lewis proton donor proton acceptor electron donor electron acceptor cady pierce oscillators crystal controlled oscillators positive feedback amplifiers crystal oscillators *'
+'history.htm#1924~ History 1924|berger electroencephalograms electroencephographs brain waves de broglies wave particle duality rice kellogg moving coil loudspeaker direct radiator loudspeaker schottky gerlach ribbon microphones ribbon louspeakers appleton layer ionosphere heaviside layer kennelly radar *'
+'history.htm#1925~ History 1925|maxfield harrison electrical sound recording electrical recording playback audion amplifier de forest edison phonograph disc rice-kellogg loudspeaker vannevar bush analog computer analogue computer differential analyser differential analyzer integrator linear integrated circuit linear ic pauli exclusion principle neils bohr sommerfeld model quantum states quantum numbers electron spin electron orbits magnetic moment heisenberg matrix mechanics quantum mechanics born atomic weapons szilard hahn strassmann ducas etched printed circuit wiring pcbs printed circuit boards printed circuits multilayer etching printing electroplating circuit boards *'
+'history.htm#1926~ History 1926|parolini additive printed circuits printing electroplating printed circuit wiring pcbs printed circuit boards printed circuits printing semon plasticised pvc poly vinyl chloride wire insulation cable insulation plasticisers flexible polymer chains flexibility eckert ziegler plastics injection moulding machine injection molding machine schroedingers wave equation schrodingers wave equation shrodinger quantum mechanics wave mechanics heisenberg matrix mechanics dirac watson and crick genetic code semiconductors holes superconductivity tunneling born quantum state probability lilienfield lilienfeld field effect transistors fets shockley semiconductors loomis lab tuxedo park mit radiation lab series vannevar bush ridenour rad lab einstein heisenberg bohr fermi marconi tizard mission randall boot cavity magnetron wall street crash lawrence cyclotron manhattan project *'
+'history.htm#1927~ History 1927|heisenbergs uncertainty principle thomson davisson electron wave particle duality de broglie schroedingers wave equation schrodingers wave equation shrodinger quantum mechanics interference patterns reid germer hund quantum tunneling battery prices battery costs chauvin arnoux multimeters nyquist black negative feedback amplifiers closed loop control system feedback control system distortion reduction distortion control stability control seymour flexible printed circuit wiring flexi pcbs flexi printed circuit boards printed circuits flexible circuits folding circuits three dimensional circuits 3d pcbs printed inductors philo farnsworth electronic television system orthicon tv campbell swinton rca zworykin armstrong marrison quartz clock quartz oscillator crystal controlled oscillator quartz watch quartz frequency standard haldane heat pumps kelvin *'
+'history.htm#1928~ History 1928|dirac equation quantum field theory maxwells equations quantum mechanics bohr pauli schroedingers wave equation schrodingers wave equation quantum wave theory quantum electrodynamics qed electron spin anderson anti-matter anti-particles antimatter anti matter positrons hartley message information content data transmission rates nyquist sampling theorem sampling rate shannon johnson noise thermal noise white noise spectrum potocnik noordung geostationary satellites clarke *'
+'history.htm#1929~ History 1929|zworykin kinescope iconoscope campbell swinton image orthicon philo farnsworth electronic television system tv picture tubes hubbles law hubble constant redshift cepheids hubbles distance law of galaxies big bang einstein humason lemaitre friedmann eddington leavitt shapley slipher primordial atom cosmic egg redshifts expanding universe cosmological constant cosmic constant hoyles steady state model static universe christian belief *'
+'history.htm#1930~ History 1930|butler-volmer butler volmer kinetic electrochemistry gusseff electrochemical machining ecm lazarenko spark erosion electrodischarge machining edm injection moulding tools injection molding tools lilienfield lilienfeld electrolytic capacitors whittle jet engines von ohain griffith gas turbines tizard mission *'
+'history.htm#1931~ History 1931|carothers neoprene synthetic rubber nylon polymers polymerisation fishar metal detector fisher metal detector drumm traction battery alkaline nickel zinc battery colebrook homodyne superhet superheterodyne zero frequency if de bellescise phase locked loop pll synchronisation control loop tucker tuning circuit radio receiver synchrodyne tuner afc automatic frequency control tuned circuit blumlein stereo sound television tv radar *'
+'history.htm#1932~ History 1932|ruska knoll transmission electron microscope tem scanning electron microscope sem quantum mechanics bacon alkaline fuel cells cockroft cockcroft walton proton accelerator nuclear particle accelerator splitting the atom split the atom smasher cyclotron lawrence rutherford transmutation of matter einstein plasticine chadwick neutrons szilard critical mass chain reaction atomic bombs roosevelt groves nuclear weapons flerov kurchatov stalin dirac anderson sub-atomic particles elementary particles anti matter anti particles positron leptons charm quarks strange quarks bosons mesons baryons muons gluons kaons pions heise schumacher zinc air battery sputnik schlecht ackermann sintered pole plate impedance sintering nyquist stability plots nyquist stability theorem stability control black nyquist plots negative feedback control systems kleist fiberglass composites fibreglass composites glass reinforced plastic grp slayter *'
+'history.htm#1933~ History 1933|dassler sealed nicad batteries sealed nicd sealed ni-cd sealed nicklel cadmium cells recombinant battery recombination recombinant batteries light weight aircraft batteries meissner effect diamagnetism diamagnetic injection moulding injection molding gibson fawcett polystyrene polythene polyethylene insulator armstrong de forest deforest de forrest sarnoff sarnof rca farnsworth regenerative radio receiver regenerative receiver audion noise triode frequency modulation fm carrier wave franz flexible printed circuit wiring flexi pcbs flexi printed circuit boards screen printing electroplating circuit boards flexible circuits folding circuits *'
+'history.htm#1934~ History 1934|lead acid gelled cells gell electrolyte sealed cells chauvin arnoux current clamps current measuring clamps *'
+'history.htm#1935~ History 1935|watson watt watson-watt radar antennas heil insulated gate field effect transistor fet igfet semiconductor arsenjeva klystron radar heil air motion transformer amt *'
+'history.htm#1930s~ History 1930s|ampoule battery military fuses fuzes *'
+'history.htm#1936~ History 1936|ellis polyester resins fibreglass composites fibergass composites glass reinforced plastics grp *'
+'history.htm#1937~ History 1937|shannon information theory boolean logic binary arithmetic binary digits digital logic gates inverters zuse digital technology digital circuits digital electronics reeves pulse code modulation pcm electrical noise immunity quantising quantizing regeneration atod converters dtoa converters multipexers henry dippy gee gps global positioning system global positioning satellite navigation satnav loran szabadi sargrove printed circuits pcbs printed circuit boards additive process integrated circuits *'
+'history.htm#1938~ History 1938|electricity market penetration bode plots closed loop stability classical control theory gross walkie-talkie walkie talkie two way mobile radio cb citizens band radio cb radio pager meitner hahn strassmann frisch nuclear fission atomic fission splitting the atom split the atom plunkett teflon polytetrafluoroethylene ptfe rebok sola constant voltage transformer cvt ferroresonant circuit magnetic saturation saturate schottky diodes metal semiconductor junction electron holes zuse z1 zuse z3 programmable digital computer von neumann architecture goldstine burks stored program control unit memory floating point arithmetic unit clock frequency relay registers software plankalkul high level programming language assembly language programming machine code ferranti univac ibm colossus winston churchill eniac edsac edvac abc atanasoff berry manchester mark1 baby harvard mark1 ascc leo turing newman flowers aiken eckert mauchly univac williams kilburn mercury acoustic delay line data storage wilkes lyons leo babbage *'
+'history.htm#1939~ History 1939|epoxy resins epoxy adhesives epoxy glues fibreglass composites fibergass composites glass reinforced epoxy gre bethe eddington nuclear fusion suns energy hydrogen isotopes electricity market penetration *'
+'history.htm#1940~ History 1940|randall boot cavity magnetrons radar transmitters microwave ovens microwaves atom bomb atomic bomd manhattan project tizard mission frisch peierls memorandum whittle jet engine winston churchill watson watt dippy gee radio navigation system loran radio navigation pierce loomis long wave ionosphere *'
+'history.htm#1941~ History 1941|andre silver oxide zinc primary cells ohl brattain doping p-n junction semiconductor junction transistors silicon solar cells solar energy adams water activated battery water battery military batteries marine batteries emergency batteries military fuses fuzes ransburg electrostatic spray painting electrostatic painting centralab thick film circuits *'
+'history.htm#1942~ History 1942|fermi chadwick nuclear power nuclear chain reactions nuclear fission atomic pile hilberry cadmium control rods atomic explosion atom bombs nuclear weapons coover cyanoacrylate adhesive superglue hanford holmes polyurethane foam insulation hedy lamarr antheil secret communications systems frequency hopping spread spectrum communications mandl secure communications cellular phones pianolas piano roll code division multiple access cdma shannon noise bandwidth tradeoff multiplexing correlation detectors autocorrelation correlator  filter matching radar range pseudrandom codes cdma radar clutter *' 
+'history.htm#1943~ History 1943|eisler printed circuit boards pcbs printed circuits subtractive process etching *'
+'history.htm#1944~ History 1944|ruben mallory button cells mercuic oxide cells mercury walkie talkies brenner riddel pessel electroless plating electroless deposition emc shielding pcbs metallic coating metal deposition *'
+'history.htm#1945~ History 1945|arthur c clarke potocnik noordung geostationary communications satellites geostationary satellites geosynchronous satellites earth stations syncom 2 syncom 3 ragazzini philbrick operational amplifiers op amps op-amps analog circuits analogue circuits bush memex memory extender hypetext hyperlinks ted nelson *'
+'history.htm#1946~ History 1946|bloch purcell larmor nmr nuclear magnetic resonance imaging mri body scanners spencer microwave oven magnetron ceramic magnets magnetic ferrites *'
+'history.htm#1947~ History 1947|bardeen brattain shockley eugenics ohl bell labs transistors semiconductors point contact transistors frequency response junction transistors teal field effect transistors fets lilienfield lilienfeld traitorous eight fairchild fairchildren moore noyce hoerni last roberts sanders grove young ring cellular phone system mobile phones cellular communications cellphones cell phones hexagonal cells neumann seals resealable cells nickel cadmium nicad nicd ni-cd recombinant systems piezoelectric gramophone needles phonograph needles gabor holograms holography secure identification product identification authentication traceability tracability parsons numerical control numerically controlled machine tools programmable machines manufacturing automation *'
+'history.htm#1948~ History 1948|transistor matare welker transistron teal little czochralski method cz method single crystals single crystal semiconductors monocrystalline semiconductors sparks grown junction transistors frequency response alloy junction transistors buehler silicon crystals solid state diodes shannon information theory binary digits information content information entropy boltzmann thermodynamic entropy shannon hartley law transmission channel capacity bandwidth signal to noise ratio trade off spread spectrum technology nyquist sampling theory signal digitisation laithwaite magnetic levitation electromagnetic levitation linear motors electromagnetic propulsion maglev trains powell danby *'
+'history.htm#1949~ History 1949|bar codes bar code system identification traceability tracability serial number batch number forrester ram magnetic core random access memory computer memory wang danko abramson dip soldering *'
+'history.htm#1950~ History 1950|shockley diode electrons and holes ebers moll tanenbaum tannenbaum goldey holonyak hall silicon controlled rectifier scr thyristor four layer diode nishizawa pin diode flywheel battery flywheel batteries opportunity charging dreyer liquid crystals lcd polariser deming total quality management tqm japanese quality martin gas chromatography gas-liquid chromatography tswett identification separation *'
+'history.htm#1951~ History 1951|wilkes wheeler gill assembly language programming assembler machine code symbolic instruction code binary code subroutines libraries reusable code grace hopper compiler source code object code high level language saby alloy junction transistor grown junction transistor jet etching technique thornton surface barrier transistors battery management systems bms embedded systems embedded software bug debugging ford automated assembly automatic assembly production automation ohmart nuclear battery nuclear batteries atomic battery atomic batteries direct energy conversion direct conversion nuclear power plants nuclear reactors nuclear boilers atomic energy nuclear energy nuclear power generation sakharov tamm tokamak thermonuclear fusion hot fusion cold fusion plasmas nuclear fusion *'
+'history.htm#1952~ History 1952|electric watches button cells lip watch transistors transistor production pfann float zone refining zone melting kapitza theuerer purity zener diode voltage regulator fuller semiconductor diffusion doping process integrated circuits welker gallium arsenide gaas dummer integrated circuits ics oatley scanning electron microscope sem eccles hodgkin huxley sodium pump nerve impulses nerve signal transmission nerves neurons axons *'
+'history.htm#1953~ History 1953|transistorised hearing aids mercury button cells matare welker transistor radios transistrons kay digital voltmeter dvm kaypro computer fox polycarbonate *'
+'history.htm#1954~ History 1954|abs thermoplastics acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastics monomers polymers mcintire styrofoam expanded polystyrene isobutylene packaging insulation shockley ohl ion implantation ion accelerators bower igfet diffusion process lee diffused base mesa transistor silicon transistors chapin fuller pearson bell labs silicon solar cells pn junction photovoltaic cell pv cell pv diode photovoltaic diode solar energy solar steam sunlight gaas gallium arsenide solar cell efficiency conversion efficiency tanenbaum tannenbaum diffused base silicon mesa transistor adcock teal grown junction silicon transistors germanium transistors regency tr-1 transistor radio koch backus fortran high level programming language software devol engleberger industrial robots pick and place machines programmable transfer machines reliability repeatability isaac azimov *'
+'history.htm#1955~ History 1955|willard grubb proton exchange membranes pem fuel cells johnson computer hard disk system hard drive uss nautilus nuclear powered submarine nuclear submarine nuclear power enriched uranium mcdonald polley tv remote controls optical remote controls adler ultrasonic remote controls infra red remote controls wang magnetic core computer memory ferrite core memory magnetic memory ferrite memory random access memory ram forrester kapany optical fibre optics optical fiber optics fibreglass glass fibre glass fiber snells law uhlir bakanowski varactor diode varicap tuners pll fll shockley diode four layer diode triple product lawson criterion nuclear fusion *'
+'history.htm#1956~ History 1956|hall moll gutzwiller scr pnpn junctions silicon controlled rectifiers thyristors motor controllers dimmers *'
+'history.htm#1957~ History 1957|korolev artificial earth satellite sputnik 1 zinc oxide batteries space race esaki tunnel diode quantum mechanics device tunneling quantum tunneling electron tunneling bardeen cooper schreiffer bcs theory superconductivity superconductors kouwnehoven heart defibrillator electric shock hamilton watch electric watches jache recombinant gel vrla battery gelled cell sla batteries sealed lead acid battery loss of electrolyte loss hanratty numerical control programming language cad/cam cad cam cadd cam pronto computer aided manufacturing frosch derrick sio2 silicon dioxide masking passivating layer passivate passivation etching andrus bond photolithography photoresist photomasking oxide masking integrated circuits device scaling planar transistors wet chemistry wet etching diffusion process computer time-sharing bemer mccarthy arpanet internet *'
+'history.htm#1958~ History 1958|leonard niedrach pem fuel cells grubb-niedrach fuel cells nasa gemini space project hoerni planar process transistors photomasking kilby noyce monolithic integrated circuits ics computer chips silicon chips flip flop flip-flop lehovec dielectric isolation transistor count schawlow townes gould lasers maser *'
+'history.htm#1959~ History 1959|lew urry primary alkaline battery alkaline primary cells ruben harry ihrig fuel cell vehicle feynman nanotechnology *'
+'history.htm#1960~ History 1960|maiman ruby lasers kahng atalla metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor mosfet polycrystalline silicon polysilicon ion implantation hofstein heiman sah shockley mos ic loar christensen kleimack theurer ross epitaxial deposition molecular beam epitaxy mbe heteroepitaxy homoepitaxy wilson greatbatch implanted heart pacemakers electrically powered implants lithium primary cells lithium iodine lithium cells lithium battery battery market data sutherland sketchpad cad computer aided design getting parkinson easton arkin gps global positioning system satellite navigation system gps satnav gps navstar spread spectrum technology dippy gee loran atomic clocks ronal regan korean airlines flight 007 president ronald reagan *'
+'history.htm#1960s~ History 1960s|teflon polytetrafluoroethylene ptfe zinc air button cells nasa bacon alkaline fuel cells apollo spacecraft *'
+'history.htm#1961~ History 1961|nasa us doe radioisotope thermoelectric generators rtg radioactive isotopes radiation direct energy conversion nuclear batteries nuclear battery atomic battery atomic batteries riley cordless power tools cordless electric drill apollo gemini space program electricity market penetration monolithic integrated circuits monolithic chips logic families resistor transistor logic rtl flip flop noyce apollo moon landing apollo guidance system diode transistor logic dtl baker fan-in fan-out transistor transistor logic ttl t2l buie longo multiple emitter input transistors emitter coupled logic ecl current mode logic cml aroot complementary metal oxide semiconductor cmos wanlass sah bipolar cmos bicmos lin kalman filter predictive control theory moving targets *'
+'history.htm#1962~ History 1962|philbrick widlar operational amplifiers op amps op-amps talbert sporck holonyak leds light emitting diodes josephson effect magnetic fields sensors superconductors superconductivity rachel carson silent spring toxic chemicals environment environmentalism toxic waste disposal conservation recycling pollution greenhouse effect greenhouse gases noxious emmissions internet licklider intergalactic computer networks global computer networks telephone network worlds biggest machine arpa darpa computer time-sharing packet switching graphical user interface gui computer mouse arpanet darpanet email tcp/ip communications protocol world wide web www browsers search engines bemer mccarthy baran davies scantlebury kleinrock nelson bush taylor engelbart roberts tomlinson abramson cerf kahn metcalfe boggs hayes christensen suess heatherington chiariglione mpeg berners-lee andreesson bina emtage koster gray fletcher pinkerton page brin hills hayes wi-fi wifi carter carterfone decision carterfone ruling carterphone sutherland sketchpad *'
+'history.htm#1963~ History 1963|cormack hounsfield computerised axial tomography cat scans gunn diode microwave oscillators gallium arsenide *'
+'history.htm#1964~ History 1964|baran davies packet switching circuit switching kleinrock roberts arpanet queueing theory internet distributed computer networks pstn time sharing tcp/ip weitbrecht marsters saks deafness deaf teletype teletypewriter telephone typewriter tty acoustic couplers audio tones bell acoustic coupler modems modulation demodulation cpe fcc carter carterphone carterfone baudot code geulia flywheel battery henry-baudot printed circuit motor pancake motor coreless motor bitzer slottow wilson plasma screen display flat panel display plasma display plasma tv zworykin *'
+'history.htm#1965~ History 1965|zadeh fuzzy logic fuzzy systems russell jacobs computer optical disk system compact disk cd rom kramer compaan cooley tukey fast fourier transforms fft gauss digital signal processor dsp moores law transistors integrated cicuits transistor count nanotechnology shockley johnston de loach cohen deloach impatt diodes microwave oscillators nelson bush sargent internet berners lee hypertext hyperlinks world wide web www *'
+'history.htm#1966~ History 1966|longo static random access memory s-ram sram flip flop ttl memory dennard dynamic random access memory d-ram dram ram magnetic core memory ferrite core memory weber kummer sodium sulphur battery sodium sulfur battery codata physical constants kao hockham optical fibre optics optical fiber optics fibreglass glass fibre optic communications glass fiber optic communications de gaulle rance tidal power station tidal energy *'
+'history.htm#1967~ History 1967|gates sealed lead acid battery sla battery beccu ovshinsky nimh battery nickel metal hydride battery nimh cells kahng sze non volatile memory programmable logic floating gate transistors floating gate fet thornley hatzakis electron beam lithography walker koford jones micromosaic application specific integrated circuits asics computer aided design cad engelbart computer mouse internet graphical user interface gui hypertext video conferencing *'
+'history.htm#1968~ History 1968|fcc carter carterphone carterfone decision carterfone ruling acoustic coupler telecoms deregulation telecoms liberalisation telephone network internet world wide web www heilmeier liquid crystal displays lcds knuth programming algorithms sorting searching software engineers *'
+'history.htm#1969~ History 1969|apollo 11 apollo guidance computer agc apollo spacecraft draper hall aldrin armstrong collins moon landing rtl integrated circuits ics mercury gemini fergason twisted nematic field effect liquid crystal displays lcds di9gital watches smith boyle ccd image sensors charge-coupled devices charge coupled devices semiconductor image sensors cmos image sensors quartz watch quartz wristwatch seiko nakamura marrison silver oxide button cells taylor roberts licklider engelbart kleinrock arpanet packet switching internet interface message processor imp router milnet tcp/ip *'
+'history.htm#1970~ History 1970|gray lcd materials liquid crystal displays maurer keck schultz zimar optical fiber optic cable optical fibre optic cable semiconductor memory semiconductor memories dennard dram cell dynamic random access memory dram chip ram regitz hoff rowe abbott vadasz karp reed static random access memory sram chip chua longo erasable programmable read only memory eprom uveprom one time programmable eprom otp eprom frohman kahng sze flash memory floating gate transistor joel cellular phone handoff system cell phone call continuity abramson aloha alohanet collision sense random access local area networks lans packet switching roberts ethernet *'
+'history.htm#1971~ History 1971|faggin hoff mazor microprocessors transistors transistor count programmable devices shugart computer floppy disk drive engel frenkiel young ring gladden parelman analogue cellular telephone systems analogue cellular communications systems cellular phones frequency reuse roaming handoff billing systems home location register hlr visitor location register vlr multiplex multiplexing call handling call set up cell phones cellphones portable phones mobile phones handsets base stations nordic mobile telephone nmt ntt sampson african american scientists gamma electric cells nuclear battery nuclear batteries atomic battery atomic batteries nuclear power direct conversion direct energy conversion tomlinson roberts internet email *'
+'history.htm#1972~ History 1972|sodium sulphur sodium sulfur battery ritchie richards thomson bcpl c programming language c language embedded software unix operating system chauvin arnoux digital multimeters dmm *'
+'history.htm#1973~ History 1973|cooper portable cell phones base stations motorola dynatac mobile phone handset engel battery market data cerf kahn tcp/ip protocol internet protocol transmission control protocol computer networks iso international standards organisation osi open standards initiative segal metcalfe boggs ethernet carrier sense multiple access with collision detection csma/cd multiple access alohanet local area networks lans computer interconnection serial communications bus asynchronous transfer mode atm projection printing contact printing *'
+'history.htm#1974~ History 1974|werbos neural networks self learning networks mcginness corry proctor organic semiconductors conducting polymers heeger macdiarmid shirakawa *'
+'history.htm#1970s~ History 1970s|valve regulated lead acid battery vrla battery sla batteries sealed lead acid battery *'
+'history.htm#1975~ History 1975|dunlop giner van ommering stockel nickel hydrogen battery nickel hydrogen batteries nih2 batteries navigation technology satellite nts-2 navstar global positioning system gps satnav hubble space telescope ed roberts altair microcomputer personal computer pc bill gates allen basic interpreter microsoft paterson qdos ms-dos pc clones operating systems *'
+'history.htm#1976~ History 1976|jobs wozniak apple II personal computer pc acorn act altos amstrad atari at&t bbc cambridge research camputers coleco commdore compucolor cromemco data general dec dragon exidy franklin grid (grundy) icl imsai intertec itt kaypro matra mattel mits nascom north star ohio scientific olivetti oric osborne philips research machines scelbi schneider sinclair sirius spectravideo swtp tandy tangerine texas instruments thomson timex victor vienna (nortel) zenith ibm ungerboek modems modem bit rates trellis coding tellis code modulation convolution coding error detection forward error correction fec public key encryption software private key encryption shared key encryption diffie hellman rivest shamir adleman algorithm rsa encryption ellis cocks williamson pgp pretty good privacy gchq *'
+'history.htm#1977~ History 1977|cellular phone system heeger macdiarmid shirakawa conducting polymers solid state batteries solid state battery supercapacitors mcginness corry proctor organic semiconductors citation amnesia disregard syndrome damadian nmr nuclear magnetic resonance imaging mri body scanners mri scans animal magnetism stereochemistry computerized axial tomography cat scans lauterbur mansfield birkner chau pld programmable logic device pal programmable array logic hayes pc modems smartmodem acoustic couplers heatherington bulletin boards *'
+'history.htm#1978~ History 1978|christensen suess computer bulletin board systems bbs cbbs message board chat room twitter email xmodem modems dumb terminal emulator sysops world wide web www store and forward network jennings fidonet internet service providers isps compressed air energy storage caes huntorf pneumatic battery cooper littauer metal-air batteries metal air batteries aluminium air battery aluminum air battery mechanically refuelable battery mechanically rechargeable battery step and repeat photolithography photoresist exposure breedlove wiggins frantz speak and spell digital signal processor digital signal processing dsp fast fourier transforms fft computerised axial tomography cat native instruction code *'
+'history.htm#1979~ History 1979|goodenough lithium ion battery lithium-ion cells lithium cobalt oxide licoo2 lithium manganese dioxide limn2o4 lithium iron phosphate lifepo4 lithium secondary cells rechargeable lithium battery bricklin frankston visicalc spreadsheets patents *'
+'history.htm#1980~ History 1980|zebra battery sodium nickel chloride nanicl absobtive glass mat battery agm lead acid battery agm battery fibreglass fiberglass glass fiber glass fibre baliga insulated gate bipolar transistor igbt mead conway very large scale integrated circuits vlsi cad silicon compiler fabless semiconductor manufacturing chip foundry silicon foundries silicon foundry *'
+'history.htm#1981~ History 1981|binnig rohrer ruska scanning tunneling microscope stm electron microscope drexler nanotechnology nanomachines atomic precision maccready solar challenger solar powered airplane pv powered plane solar energy *'
+'history.htm#1982~ History 1982|solar power generation solar energy petersen silicon machining micro-electromechanical components mems nems *'
+'history.htm#1983~ History 1983|steve jobs graphical user interface gui *'
+'history.htm#1984~ History 1984|masuoka electrically erasable programmable read only memory eeprom flash memory usb quantum tunneling effect floating gate transistor eprom freeman field programmable gate array fpga *'
+'history.htm#1985~ History 1985|diy cordless tools cordless power tools skil twist cordless screwdriver skil twist screwdriver nicad nicd nickel cadmium curl kroto smalley carbon 60 allotrope buckminsterfullerenes fullerenes fullerines buckyballs nanomaterials *'
+'history.htm#1980s~ History 1980s|sealed lead acid battery sla battery vrla battery *'
+'history.htm#1986~ History 1986|beccu ovshinsky nimh battery nickel metal hydride battery nimh cells binnig rohrer atomic force microscope ibm atoms nanotechnology tools superconductivity superconducting magnetic energy storage smes magnetic battery bednorz muller high temperature superconductors hts smith six sigma quality sampling plans parts per million ppm aoql gauss demoivre de moivre normal distribution gaussian distribution probability distribution bell curve mean standard deviation production tolerances viterbi algorithm jacobs gilhousen code division multiple access cdma mobile phones cellular phone system spread spectrum autocorrelation convolution modulation pseudorandom codes multiplexing *'
+'history.htm#1987~ History 1987|sla stereolithography apparatus rapid prototyping rp design verification master pattern making *'
+'history.htm#1988~ History 1988|lead acid load levelling battery large batteries sce chino fan tai muller micromotors micro motors micro-motors micro electromechanical systems mems electrostatic motors albert fert peter gruenberg gmr current sensors gmr magnetic sensors gmr giant magnetoresistance amr anisotropic magnetoresistance chiariglione moving picture experts group mpeg iso video compression audio compression video codecs pots lechleider cioffi broadband communications www bandwidth modems adsl dsl carrierless amplitude phase cap discrete multitone dmt pupin loading coils *'
+'history.htm#1989~ History 1989|berners-lee berners lee world wide web www hyperlinks html hypertext mark-up language http hypertext transfer protocol url universal resource locators andreessen bina ncsa mosaic browsers gui graphic user interface internet pons fleischmann pons cold fusion cold nuclear fusion hot fusion nuclear power generation patents nasa brown betavoltaic battery beta-voltaic battery betavoltaics beta rays nuclear battery nuclear batteries atomic battery atomic batteries direct energy conversion direct conversion nuclear power plutonium tritium americium smoke detectors semiconductors radioactive isotopes half life decay standby power load levelling large batteries regenesys flow battery bates solid state thin film batteries solid state lithium thin film batteries thin film battery boeing stacked semiconductor photovoltaic cells commerial email services internet service providers isps *'
+'history.htm#1990~ History 1990|nimh battery nickel metal hydride battery rechargeable lithium secondary cells lithium batteries internet search engines web robots web bots web crawlers spiders site indexing key words ftp archie aliweb junpstation wandex webcrawler google googling emtage koster gray fletcher pinkerton page brin *'
+'history.htm#1990s~ History 1990s|cordless appliances cordless tools laptop computers portable appliances portable devices  *'
+'history.htm#1991~ History 1991|sumio iijima nanomaterials carbon nanotubes buckytubes fullerenes fullerines gratzel cells graetzel cells solar cells photosynthesis photoelectrochemical cells regenerative cells zimmermann pgp pretty good privacy public key encryption software *'
+'history.htm#1992~ History 1992|kordesch ram battery rechargeable alkaline battery rechargeable alkaline manganese battery  *'
+'history.htm#1993~ History 1993|cooper zinc air refuelable battery mechanical charging *'
+'history.htm#1994~ History 1994|bellcore pli plastic lithium ion battery lithium polymer battery solid state battery solid polymer electrolyte powernet 42 volts battery standard automotive standards *'
+'history.htm#1995~ History 1995|pouch cell smart battery system sbs smbus intelligent batteries intelligent battery smart batteries on-cell battery capacity indicator on cell battery condition indicator on cell power check on cell battery tester analogue soc indicator bayliss clockwork battery wind-up battery clockwork radios wind-up radios bmw flywheel energy storage containment rotor failure flywheel failures shrapnel accident *'
+'history.htm#1996~ History 1996|patterson power cells cold fusion nuclear fusion perpetual motion machines poehler searson all plastic battery polymer battery polypyrrole polypyrole carbon fibre composite carbon fibre composite icare solar powered plane solar energy *'
+'history.htm#1997~ History 1997|hills hayes 802.11 wireless lans wi-fi wifi carrier sense multiple access csma/ca collision avoidance photovoltaics solar cells battery market data *'
+'history.htm#1998~ History 1998|sodium sulphur battery sodium suflfur battery load levelling battery large batteries tepco ngk codata *'
+'history.htm#2000~ History 2000|mills blacklight power black light power hydrino hydride battery cold fusion tripathy polymer voltaics polymer photocells flexible voltaics flexible photocells flexible solar panels power plastics heeger solar power *'
+'history.htm#2000s~ History 2000s|trends battery costs battery prices environment concerns environmental legislation regulation green products energy efficiency load levelling issues hybrid electric vehicles evs hevs manufacturing china chinese asia electronics fuel cells *'
+'history.htm#2001~ History 2001|smalley nanowires *'
+'history.htm#2002~ History 2002|nanomaterials solid state thin film batteries solid state lithium thin film batteries thin film battery *'
+'history.htm#2003~ History 2003|teeters korzhova fisher nanobattery nanobatteries nanotechnology nanotechnologies robots smart dust lithium rwe innogy regenesys large batteries nano-motors nano motors nano electromechanical systems nems electrostatic motors sales volumes battery markets demand markets market data partanen aluminium air battery *'
+'history.htm#2004~ History 2004|direct methanol fuel cells dmfc intel itanium 2 processors microprocessor transistor count transistors *'
+'history.htm#2005~ History 2005|ki bang lee urine battery futures medical tests paper battery paper batteries biochips biosensors satoh organic radical battery orb armstrong biofuel cells enzymes van hoof thermo-electric generators thermoelectric generators medical sensors future developments*'
+'history.htm#2006~ History 2006|kassakian schindall signorelli enhanced double layer capacitors edlcs single wall carbon nanotubes swnts *'
+'history.htm#2007~ History 2007|hatazawa kano biofuel cells sugar battery glucose enzymes fuel cells catalysts proton membrane microorganisms *'
+'history.htm#2008~ History 2008|jtec battery johnson thermoelectric energy conversion systems membrane electrode assembly stacks mea stacks proton conductive membranes pcm ericsson cycle ericsson thermodynamic cycle thermoelectric battery *'
+'history.htm#2009~ History 2009| *'
+'homebrew.htm~ Homebrew Battery|homebrew battery experiment lemon battery home made battery diy battery electric potato recipe simple battery physics lesson battery chemistry lesson school project school experiment voltas pile voltaic pile kelvins thunderstorm water powered electrostic generator electrostatic induction kelvins water dropping condenser *'
+'how.htm~ How to Specify Batteries|how to specify batteries battery specifications battery checklists weights volumes sizes trade offs trade-offs cost of ownership capital costs cost per cycle running costs choosing a battery choice choosing a cell choice start-up surge current whiplash coup de fouet quiescent current duty cycle multiple voltages regulators dc/dc converters ldo regulators buck regulators boost regulators switch mode regulators timing inverters depth of discharge deep discharge self discharge rates shelf life storage *'
+'hybrid_power.htm~ Hybrid Power Systems|renewable energy sustainable energy marine hybrid power systems combined heat and power chp back pressure turbine atmospheric turbine stirling engine heat recovery heat utilisation marine diesel engines electicity co-generation electricity cogeneration remote area power systems raps  *'
+'hydro_power.htm~ Hydroeletric Power|renewable energy sustainable energy hydroelectric power water power hydro power wave power dams river flow tidal power rance tidal barrages head of water turbines run of river water wheels eulers turbine equation pelton turbines francis turbines kaplan turbines impulse turbines reaction turbines variable pitch propeller turbines tidal ponds oscillating float oscillating paddle oscillating snake oscillating water column wave capture rayleigh distribution *'
+'hydrogen_fuel.htm~ Hydrogen Fuels|renewable energy sustainable energy hydrogen fuel cell stack hydrogen economy hydrogen energy carrier hydrogen expander grove fuel cells platinum catalysts catalyst poisoning hygrogen reformer steam reformer proton exchange membrane pem fuel cells phosphoric acid fuel cells pafc alkaline fuel cells afc molten carbonate fuel cells mcfc solid oxide fuel cells sofc direct methanol fuel cells dmfc balance of plant bop cryogenic storage tanks fuel cell thermal management gibbs free energy dynamic response apollo space programme fuel cell automotive applications hydrogen fuel containers distributed power generation electrolysis round trip efficiency water shift reaction hydrogen storage green energy *'
+'standards.htm~ International Battery Standards|international standards acronyms international battery standards safety standards quality standards environmental standards military standards defence standards industry standards charger standards bci automotive battery standards national standards test standards standardisation standby systems standards battery monitoring standards bms standards battery cables cable standards battery terminals terminal standards electric wheelchairs wheelchair batteries quality assurance conformance testing compliance testing calibration namas ukas aenor astm ansi as ase bsi carb nedc mveg-b cenelec nij tia eia def stan mil std denko nemko semko fimko ove codata imq din en iso 9000 fipa osha ukas gb ieee jis kema kist iec ce marking ce standards ul marking ul standards tuv csa cispa sae fcc nema nf nfpa sev tuv ute vde can bus lin bus ece-15 ece15 ece 15 ece 100 eudc usabc fuds dst misra dti strd low voltage directive lvd hse hsg united nations shipping regulations rfi emc requirements testing emc standards rfi standards software standards recycling standards maintenance standards reliability standards european battery directive nato stanags usnec nec national electrical code powernet 42v battery standards *'
+'leadacid.htm~ Lead Acid Batteries|lead acid batteries sulphation sulfation shedding gassing starting lighting and ignition sli batteries 12v 12volt 42volt sealed lead acid battery sla batteries valve regulated lead acid battery vrla batteries recombinant system agm absorbed glass mat gell starved electrolyte batteries traction batteries lead calcium batteries lead antimony batteries automotive batteries deep cycle battery submarines hybrid electric vehicle emergency power standby power supply ups lighting low costs *'
+'leclanche.htm~ Leclanché Cells|leclanche cells alkaline aqueous carbon zinc chloride dry cells manganese dioxide depolariser depolarizer toys remote controls clocks flash lights flashlights torches consumer applications radios vibrators zinc carbon batteries general purpose batteries *'
+'legal.htm~ Legal Statement|legal warranty warranties copyright *'
+'papers/Lion_Taming.pdf~ Lion Taming|lion taming li ion lithium ion batteries lithium batteries china bms battery management systems *'
+'lithium_failures.htm~ Lithium Cell Failures|lithium battery failures lithium cell failures sei layer thermal runaway low temperature operation intercalation cycle life lithium battery safety lithium cell safety lifepo4 lithium phosphate energy release arrhenius aarhenius lithium plating lithium anode plating cell operating window *'
+'lithiumP.htm~ Lithium Primary Batteries|lithium batteries lithium ion batteries lithium polymer batteries lithium primary cells lithium thionyl chloride lithium sulphur dioxide lithium sulfur dioxide lithium iodine lithium manganese dioxide lithium disulphide lithium disulfide lithium iron disulphide batteries button cells lithium air cells lithium air batteries computer memory protection heart pacemakers defibrillators utility meters watches cameras calculators car keys security transmitters smoke alarms aerospace sattelites spacecraft long lifetime low weight *'
+'lithiumS.htm~ Lithium Secondary Batteries|rechargeable lithium batteries lithium ion batteries li ion lithium polymer batteries lithium cobalt lithium manganese lithium sulphur batteries lithium phosphate lithium iron phosphate batteries lifepo4 lithium ncm tri element batteries nickel cobalt manganese lithium air cells lithium air batteries lithium titanate oxide lto sei layer nano materials doping solid state cells lithium secondary cells fraunhofer fraunhoffer deep cycle battery pagers electric razors toothbrushes portable equipment communications equipment instruments medical equipment cameras camcorders pdas laptop computers laptops modile phones automotive traction evs hevs hybrid electric vehicles long lifetime low weight *'
+'low_power.htm~ Low Power Batteries|telecoms telecomunications mobile phones cell phones instruments instrumentation back up batteries *'
+'mhd_generator.htm~ MagnetoHydroDynamic Power|magnetohydrodynamic power mhd power generation ionised gas plasma ionisation combined cycle power generation faraday current hall effect current gay lussac bernoulli lorentz law faraday induction *'
+'specifications/msds_lithium.pdf~ Material Safety Data Sheet|material safety data sheets msds lithium safety *'
+'motorcontrols.htm~ Motor Controls|electric drives electric motors motor controls speed controls ward leonard controller power conditioning field weakening current controls voltage controls chopper circuits dc-dc converters buck-boost converters buck boost regulators torque controls vector controls inverters converters clarke park transformation mathematical transforms open loop controllers closed loop controllers feedback control systems feedback loop automatic control systems negative feedback nyquist stability criterion nyquist stability criteria unstable instability loop gain loop delay overshoot error amplifier proportional controller integral controller derivative controller pid controllers 3 term controllers inrush currents tachometer tacho generator tachogenerator encoders hall effect sensors pulse counting pulse width modulation pwm pulse amplitude modulation dc link bridge rectifier bridge vco voltage controlled oscillator pulse frequency controls phase shift phase lag power factor control four quadrant operation regulator volts/hertz controllers volts hertz controllers cycloconverters field oriented control foc flux controls servo systems position controls electronic commutation thyristor controls regen regenerative braking power electronics *'
+'nicad.htm~ Nickel Cadmium Batteries|nickel cadmium batteries nicad batteries nicads alkaline chemistry motorised equipment deep cycle battery power tools two way radios electric razors portable products industrial medical instrumentation emergency lighting toys *'
+'nickel_hydrogen.htm~ Nickel Hydrogen Batteries|nickel hydrogen batteries nickel hydrogen battery alkaline chemistry ni-h2 cells long life aerospace applications satellites spacecraft deep cycle battery platinum catalysts fuel cell hybrid battery hybrid batteries *'
+'nickel_iron.htm~ Nickel Iron Batteries|nickel iron batteries robust batteries nife batteries nickel alkaline traction batteries deep cycle battery fork lift trucks *'
+'nickel_zinc.htm~ Nickel Zinc Batteries|nickel zinc batteries robust batteries batteries nickel alkaline traction batteries scooters electric bicycles lawnmowers fork lift trucks *'
+'nimh.htm~ Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries|nickel metal hydride batteries nimh batteries deep cycle battery two way radios pagers electric razors toothbrushes portable products industrial medical instrumentation emergency lighting toys consumer applications cameras camcorders mobile phones automotive traction batteries evs hevs hybrid electric vehicles *'
+'nuclear_practice.htm~ Nuclear Power Generation|renewable energy sustainable energy nuclear power generation nuclear fission reactors nuclear fusion reactors nuclear power plant rankine steam cycle brayton cycle uranium enrichment uranium 235 reactor core reactor pressure vessel containment building gaseous diffusion gas centrifuge enrichment uranium hexafluoride uranium supplies control rods moderators breeder reactors nuclear waste nuclear reprocessing pwr pressurised water reactors bwr boiling water reactors hwr heavy water reactors gcr agcr advanced gas cooled reactors magnox reactors htgcr high temperature gas cooled reactors canadian deuterium uranium reactors candu reactors fast neutron reactors breeding ratio tokamak lithium blanket toroidal plasma toroidal magnets poloidal magnets toroidal field poloidal field superconducting magnets lawson criteria lawson criterion radioactive lithium blanket mhd laser fusion Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators rtg nuclear batteries energy release sawtooth iaea insag nuclear radiation *'
+'nuclear_theory.htm~ Nuclear Theory|nuclear theory nuclear power nuclear reactions renewable energy sustainable energy atomic structure atomic number atomic mass units energy levels nuclear binding energy nuclear decay nuclear fission nuclear fusion electrons protons fast neutrons slow neutrons thermal neutrons isotopes mass spectrograph mass spectrometer nucleus nuclei nucleons nuclides nuclear forces strong force strong nuclear force mass defect mass deficiency nuclear radiation ionising radiation ions ionizing radiation alpha particles alpha radiation beta particles beta radiation gamma radiation gamma rays nuclear decay half life exponential decay radiated energy fissile material fertile material fissionable material nuclear energy release nuclear chain reaction albert einstein uranium plutonium critical mass nuclear fusion fuels deuterium tritium radioactive tokamak nuclear safety gray sievert radiation dose physiological effects biological effects ionisation *'
+'othercells.htm~ Miscellaneous Cell Types|miscellaneous cell types other cells mercury cells metal air cells metal air batteries rechargeable aluminium air cells aluminum air cells nanotechnology nanomaterials nanobattery nanobatteries solid state cells *'
+'performance.htm~ Performance Characteristics|cell performance characteristics battery performance pulse performance internal impedance internal resistance joule heating voltage drop electrolyte grain size milling sloping discharge curves temperature characteristics temperature effects capacity amphours offset peukert number peukert equation peukert effect peukert curve deep cycle batteries ragone plot energy density specific power self discharge rates shelf life deep discharge storage life cycle life lifetime energy throughput cell chemistry explanations cell characterisation cell behaviour *'
+'piston_engines.htm~ Piston Engine Power Plants|piston engined power plants diesel generator diesel genset emergency power genset diesel electric traction diesel electric trains otto cycle diesel cycle compression ignition engines spark ignition engines compression ratios stochiometric ratio two stroke engines four stroke engines superchargers supercharging diesotto engine *'
+'specifications/power_cells.xls~ High Power Cell Sizes|high power cell sizes case sizes cell dimensions case dimensions specifications capacity *'
+'primary.htm~ Primary (Non Rechargeable) Batteries|primary batteries non rechargeable batteries single use disposable batteries energy efficiency consumer batteries toys watches torch torches flashlights clocks hearing aids radios specialist batteries implanted medical devices missiles weapons systems *'
+'battery_types.htm~ Primary and Secondary Batteries|primary batteries secondary batteries non rechargeable batteries applications thermal batteries high temperature batteries water activated batteries *'
+'specifications/prismatic_cells.xls~ Prismatic Cell Sizes|low power cell sizes case sizes cell dimensions prismatic case dimensions prismatic cells specifications capacity *'
+'privacy.htm~ Privacy Policy|privacy policy cookies email personal data *'
+'protection.htm~ Protection Circuits|cell protection circuits fets field effect transistors mosfets resettable fuses polyswitch thermal fuse pptc ptc ntc temperature cut off timer explosion rupture overheating short circuit gassing venting resealable vents pressure vents electrostatic discharges esd quiescent current *'
+'quotation.htm~ Request a Battery Quotation|battery specification form battery quotes quotations samples deliveries delivery lead times estimates specifications budgetary prices *'
+'redox.htm~ Redox Batteries|redox batteries high power load levelling *'
+'references.htm~ References|references books *'
+'reserve.htm~ Reserve Batteries|deferred action batteries water activated batteries thermal batteries ampoule batteries reserve batteries high power emergency power military high temperature batteries long lifetime *'
+'secondary.htm~ Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries|secondary batteries rechargeable batteries high drain applications traction batteries power tools motor drives laptop computers mobile phones pdas camcorders toys custom designs aftermarket *'
+'semiconductors.htm~ Semiconductor Primer|intrinsic semiconductors conductors insulators resistors resistivity conductivity transconductance field effect transistors devices fets unipolar transistors npn transistors pnp transistors complementary metal oxide semiconductor materials mosfets nmos pmos cmos bipolar junction transistors bjts integrated circuits bicmos ics eprom rom standard cells pn junction sweeper field doping energy bands band gaps energy gaps work function conduction band valence band photons electronvolts electrons holes charge carriers impurities p type materials n type materials majority carriers minority carriers depletion layer space charge layer lasers leds schottky diodes avalanche breakdown zener diodes scrs silicon controlled rectifiers gate turn off thyristors gtos shockley diodes four layer diodes insulated gate bibolar transistor igbt tunnel diodes photodiodes photovoltaic diodes pv cells solar cells pv diodes heterojunction devices tandem cells cascade cells dssc dye sensitised solar cells graetzel cells gratzel cells charge splitting redox electrolyte gunn diodes impatt diodes pin diodes floating gates famos tunnel diodes varactor diodes varicaps sources drains bases emitters collectors selenium germanium gallium arsenide gaas silicon carbide cats whisker crystal radios detectors oscillators diffusion doping dopants epitaxy seebeck effect peltier effect thermocouples thomson effect seebeck thermocouples peltier thermocouples peltier cooling thermoelectricity*'
+'shipping_regs.htm~ Shipping Regulations|shipping regulations safety hazards *'
+'shock.htm~ Shocking Batteries|electric shocks safe working practices fibrillation defibrillators high voltage dangers hazards death hse osha *'
+'silver_oxide.htm~ Silver Oxide Batteries|silver oxide batteries silver zinc batteries button cells high power low power miniature batteries button cells coin cells hearing aids instruments photographic applications cameras electronic watches submarines missiles underwater spacecraft applications aerospace satellites *'
+'ss_electricity_generation.htm~ Small Scale Generating Plant|renewable energy sustainable energy small scale electricity generating plants energy alternatives grid connected systems stand alone systems renewable energy capture energy flows load shedding load diversion system dimensioning *'
+'motorsspecial.htm~ Special Motors|electric drives electric motors integrated starter alternator isa integrated starter generator isg mild hybrid electric vehicle switched reluctance motor regenerative braking start stop mode power boost printed circuit motors axial field motors pancake motors linear motors magnetic levitation maglev trains outer rotor motors in wheel motors mems micro electromechanical systems micromotors nems nano electromechanical systems electrostatic motors nanomotors nanotubes *'
+'soc.htm~ State of Charge|battery state of charge battery soc hysteresis capacitor soc ultracapacitor soc supercapacitor soc fuel gauge gas gauge depth of discharge working point battery monitoring battery operating point coulomb counting coulombic efficiency sensing ageing aging sg specific gravity hydrometer look up tables engine maps engine mapping current sampling rates sample size measurement accuracy charge estimation algorithms cumulative error build up fuzzy quantising accuracy quantising error quantizing random errors offset errors usable capacity theoretical calculations logic kalman filter fuzzy systems neural networks self learning systems on-cell battery capacity indicator on cell battery condition indicator on cell power check on cell battery tester analogue soc indicator *'
+'soh.htm~ State of Health|soh state of health cycle life lifetime ageing shelf life guarantee warranty claims log book usage history chip *'
+'solar.htm~ Solar Batteries|solar batteries photovoltaic cells pv cells photocells solar panels low power solar cells solar power solar energy green energy conversion efficiency *'
+'solar_power.htm~ Solar Power|renewable energy sustainable energy solar power solar radiation spectrum solar energy spectrum solar thermal systems solar heating systems payback period domestic water heating systems solar water heating economics solar systems economics solar systems efficiency solar pv systems solar photovoltaic ststems PV electricity generation insolation irradiance air mass astronomy latitude declination solar energy capture pv arrays pv modules photovoltaic arrays solar tracking azimuth tracking elevation tracking dual axis tracking solar collectors solar concentrator dishes parabolas trough parabolas power towers crystalline silicon solar cells amorphous silicon solar cells thin film silicon solar cells electrochemical solar cells graetzel cells maximum power point tracking mppt *'
+'steam_turbines.htm~ Steam Turbine Power|multi stage steam turbine power generation charles parsons energy conversion loss bernoulli conservation of energy impulse turbines constant pressure turbines reaction turbines aerofoils jets heros steam engine rankine cycle closed loop system working fluids carnot efficiency law heat engines condenser generator back pressure turbines *'
+'stirling_engine.htm~ Stirling Engine|renewable energy sustainable energy stirling engine piston displacer stirling engine heat engine stirling cycle alhpa configuration beta configuration gamma configuration swash plate engine regenerator combined heat and power *'
+'library.htm~ Technical Library|help technical library technology white papers *'
+'thermalbats.htm~ Thermal Batteries|biothermal batteries thermal batteries thermal battery pyrotechnics high temperature batteries missiles weapons military long shelf life long lifetime rugged acceleration shock spin eutectic *'
+'thermal.htm~ Thermal Management|thermal management overheating i2r joule heating exothermic endothermic temperature control heat loss forced cooling self heating heat dissipation convection conduction heat sinks phase change material pcm thermal runaway conduction thermo-electric effect thermoelectric thermo-chemical effect thermochemical *'
+'thermoelectricity.htm~ Thermoelectricity|renewable energy sustainable energy thermoelectricity thermoelectric devices semiconductor thermocouple seebeck effect peltier effect thomson effect bolometers thermopile thermal conductivity seebeck coefficient radioisotope thermoelectric generators rtg nuclear battery nuclear batteries direct energy conversion efficiency *'
+'traction.htm~ Traction Batteries|traction batteries high capacity cells high power cells high capacity batteries high power batteries plug in hybrid electric vehicles evs hevs phevs phvs plug in hybrids charge depletion mode charge maintenance mode battery dimensioning battery sizing eol end of life bol beginning of life bicycle batteries bike batteries automotive batteries powernet batteries sli batteries 42 volts batteries materials handling equipment series hybrid parallel hybrid range extender stop/start mode exhaust emissions noxious emissions efficiency fuel consumption deep cycle battery energy consumption *'
+'papers/UN_Regs.pdf~ UN Shipping Regulations|un shipping regulations un safety regulations united nations regulations *'
+'ups.htm~ Uninterruptible Power Supplies|standby ups no break ups uninterruptible power supplies black outs brown outs sags swells spikes surges frequency drift hold up time transfer time inrush current back up time power conditioning line condtioning filter filtering isolation shutdown shut down load shedding load sequencing hot swap hot swapping double conversion ups *'
+'instructions.htm~ User Safety Precautions|instructions for use user safety precautions warning notice esd bags *'
+'water.htm~ Water Activated Batteries|water activated batteries high power military marine emergency power sonobuoys buoys bouys torpedoes life jackets air sea rescue emergency lighting weather balloons long shelf life long lifetime rugged light weight aluminum seawater battery aluminium seawater battery *'
+'wind_power.htm~ Wind Power|renewable energy sustainable energy wind power generation windmill wind turbine power coefficient betz beaufort scale modal wind speeds yaw control automatic control systems capacity factor wind speed distribution rayleigh distribution wind energy distribution wind farms drax power station variable pitch rotors *'
+'http://www.woodbank.com/~ Woodbank Communications E-Commerce Developers|web copyright *'
+'zebra.htm~ Zebra Batteries|zebra batteries high temperature batteries traction evs hevs hybrid electric vehicles railways *'
+'zinc_air.htm~ Zinc Air Batteries|zinc air batteries metal air cells metal air batteries button cells low power miniature batteries watches hearing aids telecoms railway signalling safety lamps electric fences *'